Beginning in 1859 when the first commercial oil well in Titusville, Pa., was completed, pipelines have been used to transport crude oil from the wells to nearby tanks and refineries. That first pipeline was two miles long.

According to the U.S. Department of Transportation, there are now more than 2 million miles pipelines operated by more than 3,000 operating companies, with 160,000 miles of hazardous liquids, 305,000 miles of natural-gas transmission, and 1,860,000 miles of natural-gas distribution lines.

Pipelines are used to carry a variety of products throughout the country, including gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, aviation gasoline, jet fuel, crude oil, heating oil, natural gas, propane, anhydrous ammonia, carbon dioxide, ethane and ethylene. Often, more than one product flows through a line through a process called batching.

Pipeline operators are required to train for safe operation, including emergency response to pipeline incidents. They monitor their systems 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and are required to maintain a 24-hour telephone number for emergency responders.

There is a possibility that more than one product may be flowing from a ruptured pipeline, and those products generally have more than one hazardous property or characteristic. For example, the typical first responder concern for an incident involving gasoline is the flammability hazard, but the number-one injury to first responders in a hazmat incident actually is inhalation of the product vapors. In a 1999 Bellingham, Wash., gasoline spill, one of the three victims died from inhalation of the toxic vapors from the spill. Gasoline is toxic, especially in enclosed spaces or when large quantities of the product are present.

Other typical hazards to first responders are flammability, toxicity, oxygen deficiency, explosion and skin irritation.

Pipeline emergencies create another challenge to first responders due to the large volume of product that is typically released from a rupture. Pipeline operators control the flow of product using valves. It's important for first responders to understand that once a control valve has been shut to stop the flow of product, large quantities of residual product and pressure remain in the pipeline.

In an emergency, it may take up to several hours for the product to stop flowing, and residual pressure in the pipeline may take a considerable amount of time to decrease. Thousands of gallons of liquid may be present in between the various control valves in the system. This increases the degree of hazard to first responders and the community in general.

Pipelines are required by law to be identified by markers. The signs must display the word “Warning,” “Danger” or “Caution;” the product carried in the pipeline; the name of the company operating the pipeline; and the telephone number of the pipeline operator. They must be placed at each public road crossing and railroad where the pipeline crosses underground, along the remainder of the pipeline in sufficient numbers so that the location is accurately known, and at locations where the pipeline is above ground in areas of public access.

Pipeline markers don't identify the exact location and depth of the pipeline, though they generally are buried approximately 30 to 36 inches underground. They are intended as a warning to indicate the existence of a pipeline in the immediate area.

Pipelines are not installed in straight lines. There may be multiple pipelines buried in the same right of way. Many pipeline systems have parallel lines located adjacent to other pipelines. Some systems may have three or four pipelines in the same pipeline corridor.

Pipeline operators are required to provide and maintain accurate and detailed mapping of their pipeline systems. This information should be part of the local emergency response plan for all potential first responder agencies, especially for fire departments and hazmat response teams. Pipeline locations may be found at www.npms.rspa.dot.gov.

First responders must be familiar with the products that are transported via pipelines through their jurisdictions. This information is readily available through the pipeline operator or other reference guides, such as Material Safety Data Sheets, which are available as printed forms and Web pages.

The response to a pipeline emergency begins long before an actual event. Pre-event planning should be conducted in cooperation with local first responders and the pipeline operators and should include:

• Detailed location of pipelines.
• Names of product(s) transported.
• Identification of the hazards associated with the pipeline products.
• Construction and size of the pipeline.
• Emergency contact phone numbers for shut-down and other technical assistance.
• SOPS by all cooperating agencies.

Emergency response plans should be updated on a periodic basis. Make sure that contact information provided by various agencies is current and correct.

Once a pipeline incident occurs, the following guidelines should be followed:

Approach the scene from upwind, uphill or upstream and from a safe distance — responding emergency vehicles must not become an ignition source for flammable liquids and gases.

Isolate and deny entry. Use the North American Emergency Response Guidebook or other pre-established initial isolation distances to establish perimeters and keep people, including non-essential first responders, out of the area. When appropriate, begin evacuation as soon as possible.

Make initial notifications to other emergency response agencies and the pipeline operator.

Assume command, establishing a unified command with other responding agencies and the pipeline operator. Also establish an incident commander and a site safety officer.

Confirm identification of the products involved and access the hazards associated with that products. Liquid pipeline products often escape from a pipeline under high pressure, causing a geyser that may appear as a water-main leak. Don't assume that it isn't a hazardous material. Fatal results may occur.

Develop and implement an action plan, including a safety plan.

Make sure all responders are using appropriate personal protective equipment, which includes protective clothing, respiratory protection and monitoring equipment.

Contain the spill when possible. Confirm that the pipeline has been shut down or the flow has been redirected to another pipeline.

Initiate protective actions for the public, whether they are to evacuate or shelter in place.

Decontaminate all people and equipment.

Assist in cleanup and disposal. Pipeline companies will take the lead in this operation.

Document all actions taken by all parties.

The Department of Transportation has the authority to regulate the transportation of hazardous materials via pipelines. The Office of Pipeline Safety oversees the operations of pipelines. 49 CFR 195 contains the regulations that mandate certain activities be taken by pipeline operators, including training, mapping, testing, and reporting and records-keeping. The OPS has established regional offices throughout the country to assist pipeline operators and emergency responders in maintaining a safe operation and in emergency response preparation.

Numerous state agencies also have some regulatory authority over pipeline operations. These agencies are excellent resources for per-event planning and may be a valuable resource when a pipeline incident occurs.

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John Linstrom is a senior manager in the Homeland Security Services division of EG&G Technical Services, assigned to the Southern California office. He's an adjunct faculty member for Texas A&M University and the National Fire Academy. Linstrom currently serves as a battalion chief/paramedic in Apple Valley, Calif. He also serves as commander of the DHS/FEMA DMORT team for Region IX and has been involved in the national US&R program since 1996.

Do's & Dont's

• Do approach the scene from uphill, upwind or upstream.
• Do notify the pipeline operator immediately. Verify that they have been contacted and will be responding.
• Do alert other essential emergency response agencies.
• Do begin evacuation as soon as possible.
• Do your best with what resources are available.
• Do use common sense.
• Don't smoke at or near the incident. Vapors can travel long distances.
• Don't become an ignition source with vehicles,radios or flares.
• Don't drive through vapor clouds or smoke.
• Don't come in contact with the product.
• Don't panic or become overwhelmed by the enormity of the incident.
• Don'tbecome part of the problem.

FIRECHIEF.COM

For more on pipeline safety, see “Danger Down Below,” July 2004, available on our Web site.