Progressive fire departments must strive to meet the many needs of the people they protect. Among those needs is water rescue, as there's hardly a jurisdiction that doesn't have the potential for water-related accidents. In fact, in some areas these incidents outnumber fire-related injuries and fatalities.

The demand for water rescue services is one that each public safety jurisdiction should look at closely. As valuable as these services are, the training requirements and equipment needs are costly. It goes without saying that a prudent fire department can offer basic water rescue measures such as throw bags and life rings without developing an actual water rescue team.

But for the department that decides to go further, evaluating what water rescue services are to be provided becomes a complicated equation that involves many aspects of the jurisdiction and its resources.

Preliminary steps

It's helpful to evaluate what services are truly needed by surveying the history of the jurisdiction and neighboring jurisdictions. In one particular Colorado fire protection district, statistics showed that water fatalities exceeded fire fatalities. By mapping those incidents, fire officers were able to see where the most obvious water dangers were and focus their preparedness more effectively.

Any public safety department also would be well served to consult extensively with its local risk management and revenue departments for guidance on what level of service is allowable given the jurisdiction's limitations. Risk management departments may be able to determine whether a department is able to provide water rescue services in light of liability and insurance issues. Cost factors would be evaluated by the revenue department, which can establish a prospective budget.

If it's decided that water rescue services are to be provided, the jurisdiction's needs will dictate whether swiftwater, dive or both services should be offered, which in turn dictates the criteria for selecting and equipping dive team members.

In addition to local resources, the NFPA Web site offers statistical information that may provide support for bringing swiftwater and dive rescue services on-line, or factor into the decision to forgo such services.

As for NFPA standards, a good one for jurisdictions to review is NFPA 1670, Operations and Training for Technical Rescue, which departments can use to measure their competency to deal with different types of technical rescues. NFPA 1001, Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications, discusses the individual standards for various rescue disciplines. These are the minimum standards for which jurisdictions should aim.

“One thing I think jurisdictions may overlook is that if you don't have adequate resources, you don't have to do it,” says Don Cooper, deputy chief of the Cuyahoga Falls (Ohio) Fire Department and secretary of the National Fire Protection Association's technical rescue committee. “Research the options of calling on another agency to provide that type of capability.”

Water assessment

Much like pre-planning potential fire scenes, one of the most important things a department can do is survey potential water rescue sites and scenarios with considerations for the differences between swiftwater and dive rescue disciplines.

A jurisdiction should be surveyed in various conditions while looking at citizen activity in proximity to water areas. In obvious swiftwater rescue areas, such as creeks, rivers, run-off channels, drainage canals and irrigation ditches, it's helpful to survey these areas when the water is at its lowest levels. With minimal or no water present, hazards are more easily visible.

In a potential dive rescue area, such as ponds, lakes, reservoirs and standing water areas, it's equally helpful to be on top of potential hazards. For example, some reservoirs and lakes allow Christmas tree disposal to facilitate fish and wildlife habitats and decrease landfill usage. These trees can create a dangerous hazard for dive team members if they don't know where these hazards are located before they go in.

Like any fire scene, the more information that is known before the call, the better the chances for a good outcome. “It requires a multi-faceted response to identify potential hazards like these,” says John Kushner, director of education for Dive Rescue International, a Colorado-based company that provides training, education and certification for public safety personnel. “What do you do? You look at past history, areas of the city that may be flooded during flash floods or rainstorms. You have to look at those areas and say, ‘If we have to go get somebody from that area, is there life-threatening potential for a public safety person?’”

While surveying their jurisdictions, departments should keep in mind seasonal variations and the attendant changes in equipment and training needs for each condition. For example, the river that is low and slow in summer will require different equipment and training than the springtime river raging with winter snow melt or the winter river covered in ice.

Obvious bodies of water aren't the only areas that should be examined. Any place that floods, including streets, needs to be surveyed. For example, two firefighters in a major metropolitan area were directing traffic at a routinely flash-flooded city intersection when they spotted a woman clinging to a metal post.

Both firefighters waded in to retrieve her, but one was pulled under by the current created by a 12-foot-deep culvert that wasn't visible in its flooded condition. The other firefighter guided the citizen to safety, then tied off and was joined later by more department personnel, searching in vain for the first firefighter. The stricken firefighter's body was found six hours later in a drainage ditch two blocks away.

A public safety department should be prepared for these scenarios by adequately evaluating the services needed within its jurisdiction and its ability to provide those services. If the evaluation concludes that a public safety department can't adequately provide the needed services, it should be able to identify resources within other agencies that can help identify and map dangerous areas, and provide the necessary services.

This incident also points out that surveying the jurisdiction and coordinating with other groups within the jurisdiction can have advantages. For example, consider coordinating with outfitters or recreational watercraft providers that supply or guide citizens who use area bodies of water for recreation. This type of coordination may pay off large dividends later.

Dive team members

Whether the jurisdiction offers swiftwater, dive rescue or both, careful selection of dive team members is critical to providing a fire protection district with the best possible outcome when a water rescue become necessary.

Boulder (Colo.) Fire Rescue Bttn. Chief Gil Espinoza, a former operator with U.S. Navy SEAL Team One, has some surprising advice on developing team members. Espinoza says that a water rescue team candidate need not be initially comfortable in water, as that can be developed later. What is critical, he says, is “physical ability, mental and psychological capacity and attention to detail.”

Due to the demands placed on a diver's body, it's imperative to maintain good physical fitness and be cleared medically before undertaking training. “It takes the desire and willingness to be part of a team, to be safe and competent, always looking out for oneself and their swim buddy,” Espinoza says. “Trust in instructors, in their equipment, and that the dive guidelines are appropriate for the environment.”

Espinoza relates that some of the same principles used by SEAL team members cross over to public safety department dive teams. A good team member should strive to be as competent as he or she can be. “Being the best that you can be reduces the possibility of letting your team members down. It's not the situation that is obvious that you get hurt in. It's the unforeseen factor that can impact your operation.”

Training and equipment

As with structure fire training in many jurisdictions, there's far more water rescue training and education than practical usage in the field. But when it comes down to it, training and education are what it takes to survive and effect good rescues. Locating and securing training for dive teams from accredited public safety dive rescue trainers is key. Recreational dive training is no substitute for the highly specialized training provided by nationally recognized and accredited trainers.

Enough can't be said for training dive team members, whether for swiftwater or dive rescue. Most dive rescue fatalities occur during training exercises. A firm commitment must be made to secure the proper training and diligently pursue ongoing training.

Asst. Chief Jay Bowdlin, director of training for the Sacramento (Calif.) Fire Department, stresses that public safety departments should acquire the appropriate training and equipment for the specific discipline a jurisdiction will provide. He also says that you should document the ongoing training of rescue divers. Should OSHA ever be called in, accurate training records will document the dedication to firefighter safety of the jurisdiction.

Bowdlin relates that several years ago a sheriff's department diver was lost during a body recovery on one of the rivers in the department's jurisdiction — the diver's body was never recovered. A review of the accident indicated that better shore-to-diver communication may have helped mitigate the dangers faced by rescue personnel. Subsequently, Sacramento's training department offered classes in swiftwater rescue techniques to public safety personnel and directed the proceeds to the sheriff's department dive rescue team to acquire full face masks with two-way communication capability, which provide better shore-to-diver communication.

Whether for swiftwater or dive rescue, uniformity in dive team equipment is essential. Having the same equipment for all team members keeps divers familiar with equipment. In a life-or-death situation, that familiarity may make a difference. Uniformity of equipment also extends to the placement of equipment on the diver's body, such as a dive knife worn on left calf, among all dive team members. This extent of uniformity makes it easier to assist a team mate if needed.

“I can't caution jurisdictions enough from making the mistake that water rescue is water rescue, regardless of moving water versus still water,” says Cooper. “They must absolutely be addressed separately.” Each jurisdiction should carefully evaluate or re-evaluate its water rescue needs, survey the jurisdiction, develop a dive team or teams, and train and equip that team properly to ensure the effectiveness of the water rescue and the personnel who provide those life saving services.

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A member of Boulder (Colo.) Fire Rescue since 1993, Brian Eckelkamp is currently the dive team leader and a public safety SCUBA instructor. He began his career in the fire service at McDonnell Douglas in 1990, and he was a shipboard downed pilot search-and-rescue swimmer with the U.S. Navy. He has been involved with public safety since 1982 when he was a beachguard with Clearwater Beach, Fla.